References
Price, P. W., Denno, R. F., Eubanks, M. D., Finke, D. L. & Kaplan, I. Insect Ecology: Behavior, Populations and Communities (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2011).
Watanabe, M. E. Pollination worries rise as honey bees decline. Science 265, 1170–1170 (1994).
Soroye, P., Newbold, T. & Kerr, J. Climate change contributes to widespread declines among bumble bees across continents. Science 367, 685–688 (2020).
Mathiasson, M. E. & Rehan, S. M. Status changes in the wild bees of north-eastern North America over 125 years revealed through museum specimens. Insect Conserv. Divers. 12, 278–288 (2019).
Powney, G. D. Widespread losses of pollinating insects in Britain. Nat. Commun. 10, 1018 (2019).
Fox, R. The decline of moths in Great Britain: a review of possible causes. Insect Conserv. Divers. 6, 5–19 (2013).
Casey, L. M., Rebelo, H., Rotheray, E. & Goulson, D. Evidence for habitat and climatic specializations driving the long-term distribution trends of UK and Irish bumblebees. Divers. Distrib. 21, 864–875 (2015).
Hallmann, C. A. et al. More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas. PLoS ONE 12, e0185809 (2017).
Leather, S. R. “Ecological armageddon”–more evidence for the drastic decline in insect numbers. Ann. Appl. Biol. 172, 1–3 (2018).
Habel, J. C., Samways, M. J. & Schmitt, T. Mitigating the precipitous decline of terrestrial European insects: Requirements for a new strategy. Biodivers. Conserv. 28, 1343–1360 (2019).
Sánchez-Bayo, F. & Wyckhuys, K. A. G. Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: a review of its drivers. Biol. Conserv. 232, 8–27 (2019).
Seibold, S. et al. Arthropod decline in grasslands and forests is associated with drivers at landscape level. Nature 574, 671–674 (2019).
Salcido, D. M., Forister, M. L., Garcia Lopez, H. & Dyer, L. A. Loss of dominant caterpillar genera in a protected tropical forest. Sci. Rep. 10, 422 (2020).
Wagner, D. L. Insect declines in the Anthropocene. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 65, 457–480 (2020).
Wesner, J. S. et al. Loss of potential aquatic–terrestrial subsidies along the Missouri River floodplain. Ecosystems 23, 111–123 (2020).
Wepprich, T., Adrion, J. R., Ries, L., Wiedmann, J. & Haddad, N. M. Butterfly abundance declines over 20 years of systematic monitoring in Ohio, USA. PLoS ONE 14, e0216270 (2019).
Welti, E. A. R., Roeder, K. A., de Beurs, K. M., Joern, A. & Kaspari, M. Nutrient dilution and climate cycles underlie declines in a dominant insect herbivore. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 7271–7275 (2020).
Montgomery, G. A. et al. Is the insect apocalypse upon us? How to find out. Biol. Conserv. 241, 108327 (2020).
Saunders, M. E., Janes, J. K. & O’Hanlon, J. C. Moving on from the insect apocalypse narrative: engaging with evidence-based insect conservation. Bioscience 70, 80–89 (2020).
Thomas, C. D., Jones, T. H. & Hartley, S. E. “Insectageddon”: a call for more robust data and rigorous analyses. Glob. Change Biol. 25, 1891–1892 (2019).
Outhwaite, C. L., Gregory, R. D., Chandler, R. E., Collen, B. & Isaac, N. J. B. Complex long-term biodiversity change among invertebrates, bryophytes and lichens. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4, 384–392 (2020).
Macgregor, C. J., Williams, J. H., Bell, J. R. & Thomas, C. D. Moth biomass increases and decreases over 50 years in Britain. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 1645–1649 (2019).
Gonzalez, A. et al. Estimating local biodiversity change: a critique of papers claiming no net loss of local diversity. Ecology 97, 1949–1960 (2016).
Vellend, M. et al. Estimates of local biodiversity change over time stand up to scrutiny. Ecology 98, 583–590 (2016).
van Klink, R. et al. Meta-analysis reveals declines in terrestrial but increases in freshwater insect abundances. Science 368, 417–420 (2020).
Ellis, E. C. Anthropogenic transformation of the terrestrial biosphere. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 369, 1010–1035 (2011).
Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Lubchenco, J. & Melillo, J. M. Human domination of Earth’s ecosystems. Science 277, 494–499 (1997).
Kanakidou, M. et al. Past, present, and future atmospheric nitrogen deposition. J. Atmos. Sci. 73, 2039–2047 (2016).
Dornelas, M. et al. A balance of winners and losers in the Anthropocene. Ecol. Lett. 22, 847–854 (2019).
Tylianakis, J. M., Tscharntke, T. & Lewis, O. T. Habitat modification alters the structure of tropical host–parasitoid food webs. Nature 445, 202–205 (2007).
Finke, D. L. & Snyder, W. E. Niche partitioning increases resource exploitation by diverse communities. Science 321, 1488–1490 (2008).
Crowder, D. W., Northfield, T. D., Strand, M. R. & Snyder, W. E. Organic agriculture promotes evenness and natural pest control. Nature 466, 109–112 (2010).
Mack, R. N. et al. Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecol. Appl. 10, 689–710 (2000).
Sikes, D. S. & Raithel, C. J. A review of hypotheses of decline of the endangered American burying beetle (Silphidae: Nicrophorus americanus Olivier). J. Insect Conserv. 6, 103–113 (2002).
Harmon, J. P., Stephens, E. & Losey, J. The decline of native coccinellids (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in the United States and Canada. J. Insect Conserv. 11, 85–94 (2007).
Agrawal, A. A. & Inamine, H. Mechanisms behind the monarch’s decline. Science 360, 1294–1296 (2018).
Garibaldi, L. A. et al. Wild pollinators enhance fruit set of crops regardless of honey bee abundance. Science 340, 1608–1611 (2013).
Samson, F. & Knopf, F. Prairie conservation in North America. Bioscience 44, 418–421 (1994).
Ratajczak, Z. et al. Abrupt change in ecological systems: inference and diagnosis. Trends Ecol. Evol. 33, 513–526 (2018).
Ives, A. R., Einarsson, Á., Jansen, V. A. A. & Gardarsson, A. High-amplitude fluctuations and alternative dynamical states of midges in Lake Myvatn. Nature 452, 84–87 (2008).
Spatiotemporal Design (NEON, National Science Foundation – National Ecological Observatory Network, 2019); https://www.neonscience.org/about/about/spatiotemporal-design
North American Butterfly Count Circles (NABA, North American Butterfly Association, 2019); https://www.naba.org/butter_counts.html
Burkle, L. A., Marlin, J. C. & Knight, T. M. Plant–pollinator interactions over 120 years: loss of species, co-occurrence, and function. Science 340, 1611–1615 (2013).
Harvey, J. A. et al. International scientists formulate a roadmap for insect conservation and recovery. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4, 174–176 (2020).
Cardinale, B. J. et al. Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 486, 59–67 (2012).
Vellend, M. et al. Global meta-analysis reveals no net change in local-scale plant biodiversity over time. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110, 19456–19459 (2013).
Dornelas, M. et al. Assemblage time series reveal biodiversity change but not systematic loss. Science 344, 296–299 (2014).
Newbold, T. et al. Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity. Nature 520, 45–50 (2015).
Lagos-Kutz, D. et al. The soybean aphid suction trap network: sampling the aerobiological “soup”. Am. Entomol. 66, 48–55 (2020).
R Core Team R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2019).
De Graaf, R. M., Tilghman, N. G. & Anderson, S. H. Foraging guilds of North American birds. Environ. Manag. 9, 493–536 (1985).
Ives, A. R., Abbott, K. C. & Ziebarth, N. L. Analysis of ecological time series with ARMA(p, q) models. Ecology 91, 858–871 (2010).
Breiman, L. Random forests. Mach. Learn. 45, 5–32 (2001).
Fick, S. E. & Hijmans, R. J. WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. Int. J. Climatol. 37, 4302–4315 (2017).
Venter, O. et al. Global terrestrial human footprint maps for 1993 and 2009. Sci. Data 3, 160067 (2016).
Halpern, B. S. et al. A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319, 948–952 (2008).
Cutler, D. R. et al. Random forests for classification in ecology. Ecology 88, 2783–2792 (2007).
Oksanen, J. et al. vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 2.5-4 (2019).
Jaccard, P. The distribution of the flora in the alpine zone. N. Phytol. 11, 37–50 (1912).
Harrison, S., Ross, S. J. & Lawton, J. H. Beta diversity on geographic gradients in Britain. J. Anim. Ecol. 61, 151–158 (1992).
Barwell, L. J., Isaac, N. J. B. & Kunin, W. E. Measuring β-diversity with species abundance data. J. Anim. Ecol. 84, 1112–1122 (2015).
Koleff, P., Gaston, K. J. & Lennon, J. J. Measuring beta diversity for presence–absence data. J. Anim. Ecol. 72, 367–382 (2003).
